Quantum Gravity:
Gravity is regarded as an important force on the cosmological/macroscopic scale,but not significant at the subatomic scale. Physicists have long sought to reconcile/unify quantum mechanics and general relativity. Demonstrating the equivalence of the strong interaction force and gravity would make that synthesis/unification a reality
Gravity is regarded as a weak force becuz it acts on objects separated by vast distances. The force is inversely proportional to the distance between the two masses.
Hence at immense distances even massive objects such as galaxy superclusters are not affected by gravity.(whereas galaxy and galaxy cluster slowly implode toward their center under the influence of gravity, the force of gravity is so small between galaxy superclusters that it is overcome by the outward expansion of the universe. We do not know what is powering the observed accelerating expansion of the universe.)
Conversely, at short subatomic and infinitesimal distances,gravity can be a strong force even between small masses such as hadrons(subatomic particles).*
Fg = G (m1*m2)/(d^2) where G= gravitational constant (6.67*10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2)or 6.67300 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2 ,and m1 and m2 = the masses of object 1 and object 2 respectively. For example:proton mass = 1.67261 x 10^-27 kg d=the distance (in meters) between the two objects = the separating distance between the centers of mass of the particles = diameter of a proton is 2 × 10^-14 meters (The proton has a radius about 10^-15 m )
Thus as d^2 approaches zero,...(m1m2) approaches infinity Thus when two particles possessing mass are contiguous (such as neutrons in an atomic nucleus),or fuse together to become one (such as a proton and electron combining to form a neutron ,or quarks combining to form a proton*),the force of gravity maintaining the integrity of the unified structure may be immense! If hadrons are described not as discrete material particles,but waves, then they can perhaps interpenetrate each other (fuse together) to occupy the same space. Two objects occupy the same space when they become one. Thus the spatial distance("d" in the above equation) between the two separate particles collapses to zero. In fact at this quantum level (the subatomic scale), gravity may be identical with or a component of the "strong interaction force" wch bonds hadrons (and their constituent components)together within the atomic nucleus.It is a force of attraction between nucleons at short range. Essentially we can say that gravity and the "strong nuclear interaction force" are identical!
Distance (d)in the above equation must be measured not to the outer surface of the sphere/object/particle but to to their point centers. Thus two contiguous/touching spheres are separated by a distance equal to the sum of their two radiuses. To calculate the force of gravity between hadrons within the nucleus of an atom we need to know: What are the radiuses of some subatomic particles? What is the radius and mass of a neutron? proton mass = 1.67261 x 10 -27 kg, Thus gravity is what keeps a rapidly spinning mass together . Without this force of attraction,the center would not hold.Gravity draws matter toward a center point. Gravity is the weakest force in the universe,yet in sufficient amounts it can capture light.
A critically large mass has the strength to prevent the escape of light or to "contain" light energy. In fact all matter is a storage battery/repository for light energy. Matter is light in a "potential" form.The annihilation of mass results in the creation of light energy.
Matter and energy are interchangeable forms of one substance/stuff.
In molecules, energy is stored in chemical form (as bonds between atoms). All material particles are like "black holes" wch confine the light energy they contain through gravity,strong nuclear interaction force , or other unidentified forces. We do not understand the mechanisms by wch this potential energy is captured,confined, and released.Since matter is an unlimited reservoir of energy ..,understanding how energy is captured and released from this potential form ,would enable us to harness it in a controlled manner. We need to apply some fresh thinking to this problem so that we can use this limitless supply of energy, and wean ourselves from fossil fuels. Black Holes do not have a minimum size ,and could be the size of an atom or neutron. They are ultra dense points of hidden mass/energy. It has been calculated that the minimum amount of mass required to form a black hole (i.e. to confine light and prevent it's escape) would be 20 times the sun's mass. But perhaps it's not important what the starting mass is so much as the mass density finally attained within the black hole! If sufficient matter and energy(mass) is squeezed/compressed into a space of sufficiently small radius,then density approaches infinity. Gravity compresses aggregations of diffuse matter and energy into ever-smaller volumes ...thereby squeezing mass densities towards infinity.
It has been argued that only stars emit electromagnetic radiation and since stars formed only 600 million years after the Big Bang, prior to this the early universe was opaque; that is, it did not radiate electromagnetic radiation. However it seems unlikely that all the energy emmitted from and radiated by the Big Bang event was made only of microwaves (cosmic microwave background radiation). Other wavelenghts of electromagnetic radiation would have contributed to the background radiation emanating from the Big Bang event. It seems more likely that light of all wavelenghts was generated by and blasted out at the instant of the Big Bang ,just as it is created in a thermonuclear explosion.
That shock wave or wave front would have propogated outward at light speed ,and would not be expected to be diffused throughout space like the background microwave radiation .That wave front defines/delineates the outwardly moving boundary of space, and hence the outer limit/boundary of the universe. At the instant of the Big Bang , matter and antimatter existed in equal amounts because the laws of nature require that matter and antimatter be created in pairs. So where is the antimatter? Because matter and antimatter on contact annihilate each other in a burst of energy according to the equation, E=mc2.,we could use this phenomenon as a means of converting matter into useable energy.
Fg = G (m1*m2)/(d^2) where G= gravitational constant (6.67*10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2) =6.67300 × 10^-11 m3 kg-1 s-2, and m1 and m2 = the masses of object 1 and object 2 respectively ,d=the distance (in meters) between the two objects
Sample calculation: What is the gravitational force exerted between two protons within the atomic nucleus: proton mass = 1.67261 x 10^-27 kg proton diameter = 2 × 10^-14 meters Fg = G (m1*m2)/(d^2)= (6.67300 × 10^-11 m3 kg-1 s-2)(1.67261 x 10 ^-27 kg)( 1.67261 x 10 ^-27 kg)/(2 × 10^-14 m) x (2 × 10^-14 m) = (6.67300 × 10^-11 m3 kg-1 s-2)(2.79762421 × 10^-54kg^2)/4 × 10^-28 m^2 = 6.67300 x 2.79762421 = 18.6685464 x 10^-65 m3kgs^-2/4 × 10^-28 m^2 = 4.6671366 x 10^-37 mkgs^-2
The newton is the unit of force derived in the SI system; it is equal to the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second per second. In dimensional analysis, F=ma, multiplying m (kg) by a (m/s2), the dimension for 1 newton unit is therefore: 1N =1 kg·m/s² As mass density is increased by reducing the volume of the sphere within wch the mass is contained by one thousandfold(10^3 X),the diameter of the particle is also reduced by 10^3.Thus "d^2" in the above equation becomes 4 × 10^-34 m^2 Reduced by 10^9 fold ,"d" becomes 2 x 10^-23 ,and "d^2" becomes 4 × 10^-46 m^2. But reduced by 10^19 fold,"d" becomes 2 x 10^-33 ,and "d^2" becomes 4 x 10^-66 m^2,and "F" now becomes a larger number: 46.671366 mkgs^-2 . For every 10fold decrease in "d", there is a 10fold increase in "F". As "d" becomes smaller and smaller (that is, as "d" approaches zero),the numerator in the equation becomes larger and larger. In fact as "d" approaches zero,the numerator approaches infinity. Thus at very small distances (less than 10^-33 m)gravity again becomes a significant force. Gravity may have a significant role in holding dense particles less than 10^-33 m in diameter together. Such a scenario can occur when two protons fuse/coalesce to become one (that is, they come to occupy the same space,thereby the distance between them collapses to zero!
Any single particle (Pm3) can be mathematically described as two separate "virtual" particles (Pm1 and Pm2) each carrying half the mass and separated by near-zero distance.
see "zero degrees of separation"
Any one object/particle can be split in two.
Two objects/particles can occupy (co-exist within) the same/common space.
Any single object can be described as "two objects orbiting a common center of mass". These are simply two equivalent descriptions of the same object! (see "Supertoroid" below)
"F" then is the force with wch the constituent virtual particles are held together.
* There are some 60 identified particles trapped inside neutrons The Standard Model describes forces between particles smaller than atoms. The Standard Model predicts that exchange particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are emitted and absorbed.
Sphere packing:
How many spheres can be fitted into a given space?
The mass of the proton (1.67262158 × 10^-27 kilograms) is about eighty times greater than the sum of the rest masses of the quarks that make it up, while the gluons have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a region within a proton, as compared to the energy of the quarks and gluons in the QCD vacuum, accounts for over 98% of the mass. The diameter of atoms is hundreds of millions of times greater than the diameter of nucleons located at the center of atoms.
Bibliography Sears, W. Francis. University Physics. New York. Addison Wesley, 1992: 596-603. "Our physics books say that the diameter of a proton is 2 × 10-14 m Christensen, James J. The Structure of an Atom. London: Wiley, 1990: 60-65. "The structure is reflected in the size of nucleons which are about 10-15 m across" MIllikan, Robert Andrews. Electronics (+ and -) Protons, Photons, Neutrons, and Cosmic Rays. London: Cambridge University Press, 1990: 47.
"The radius of a proton is on the order of 10-13 cm" 10-15 m Brown, Jonathan. The Physical Science Encyclopedia. New York. Cornell University Press, 1980. "The proton has a radius about 10-15 m World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: World Book, 1998: 69. "A proton has a diameter of approximately one-millionth of a nanometer" 10-15 m
nuclear range is called a short-range, wherein the nucleons attract each other with a force, much larger than the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged protons. This means, two neutrons attract each other though they are neutral; two protons attract each other though they are both positively charged; a proton and a neutron attract each other though they are not of opposite charges. In other words the nucleons bind themselves together when they happen to come closer than 10-12 cm. Within this range, the closer they are the stronger their bond is. charge on a proton is +1. Its location is the nucleus, and its mass is 1.67262 x 10-27 kg. Protons have an effective size of about 1.2 x 10-15 m, and the nucleus is roughly the cube root of the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) times that typical proton size, usually still on the order of 10-15 to 10-14 m in size. The charge on an electron is -1. It is found in a region around the nucleus called the electron cloud. The mass of an electron is 9.10939 x 10-31 kg (1836 times lighter than the mass of a proton). The typical size of the electron cloud is usually 5 x 10-11 to 10-10 m in size, about 100,000 times larger than the nucleus. The charge of a neutron is 0, and it is located in the nucleus along with the proton(s). The mass of the neutron is 1.67493 x 10-27 kg. The elementary charge is equal to 1.60218 x 10-19 Coulombs. The proton and electron each carry this charge, but the sign of the charge will be positive for the proton, and negative for the electron. Note: The mass of the proton and the mass of the neutron apply to the individual particles. When protons and neutrons are combined (fused) in a nucleus to make an atom, they all give up a bit of their mass (mass deficit) to create binding energy (or nuclear glue). This is necessary to offset the repulsion of the protons (which are like charges, and like charges repel), and it is absolutely necessary for this to happen to make the nucleus stick together.
The width of a proton is a hundred thousandth of the width of an atom, the width of an atom is a millionth of the width of a hair, and the width of a hair is a tenth of one millimeter. At Long Last, Physicists Calculate the Proton's Mass By Adrian Cho ScienceNOW Daily News 21 November 2008 It's one thing to know a fact, but it's another to explain it, as a curious advance in particle physics shows. Ever since the proton was discovered 89 years ago, physicists have been able to measure the mass of the particle--which, along with another called the neutron, makes up the atomic nucleus. But even with the best computers, theorists had not been able to start with a description of the proton's constituent parts and calculate its mass from scratch. Now, a team of theorists has reached that goal, marking the arrival of precision calculations of the ultracomplex "strong force" that binds nuclear matter. "It's a really big deal," says John Negele, a theorist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge. "It's the first time that we've really had this kind of confidence that everything is being done right." Like a troubled teenager, the proton is a mess inside and just about impossible to figure out. In the 1970s, experimenters discovered that the proton and the neutron, known collectively as nucleons, consist of more-fundamental particles called quarks and gluons, which are the basic elements of a theory called quantum chromodynamics (QCD). In the simplest terms, a proton contains two "up" type quarks and one "down" type quark, with gluons zipping among them to bind them with the strong nuclear force. (The neutron contains two downs and an up.) In reality, a nucleon is much more complicated. Thanks to the uncertainties of quantum mechanics, myriad gluons and quark-antiquark pairs flit in and out of existence within a nucleon. All of these "virtual" particles interact in a frenzy of pushing and pulling that's nearly impossible to analyze quantitatively. "Everything interacts with everything," says Laurent Lellouch, a theorist with the French National Center for Scientific Research at the Center for Theoretical Physics in Marseille and one of 12 physicists from France, Germany, and Hungary who performed the new calculations. Ninety-five percent of the mass of a nucleon originates from these virtual particles. To simplify matters, the team took a tack pioneered in the late 1970s called lattice QCD. Within their computer programs, the researchers modeled space not as continuous but as a three-dimensional array of points. They also modeled time as passing in discrete ticks, as opposed to flowing smoothly. This turns space and time into a lattice of points. The researchers then confined the quarks to the points in the lattice and the gluons to the links between the points. The lattice sets a shortest distance and time for the interactions, greatly simplifying the problem. Still, the computation involves millions of variables and requires supercomputers. Only since about 2000 have researchers attempted to include not just all of the gluons but the fleeting quark-antiquark pairs as well. The latest work, reported today in Science, incorporates a variety of conceptual improvements to obtain estimates of the mass of the nucleon and nine other particles made of up, down, and slightly heavier "strange" quarks accurate to within a couple of percent. This isn't the first computational tour de force for particle physicists. Five years ago, others made equally precise calculations of more esoteric quantities--somewhat easier to calculate--such as those that govern the decay of a particle called a D+ meson, which contains a down antiquark and a heavy "charm" quark, notes Christine Davies, a theorist at the University of Glasgow in the U.K. Still, she says, the calculation of the well-known masses highlights the ability of lattice QCD to make accurate predictions for the strong force. "This is all good news for lattice QCD," Davies says, "because there are lots of things that we want to calculate that experimenters haven't already measured." For example, Negele says, physicists still don't know distribution of the virtual particles inside the proton or the origin of its spin.
The size of the proton:
--published in Nature ,volume 466,p 213-216 (08,july 2010)
The proton is the primary building block of the visible Universe, but many of its properties—such as its charge radius and its anomalous magnetic moment—are not well understood. The root-mean-square charge radius, rp, has been determined with an accuracy of 2 per cent (at best) by electron–proton scattering experiments1, 2. The present most accurate value of rp (with an uncertainty of 1 per cent) is given by the CODATA compilation of physical constants3. This value is based mainly on precision spectroscopy of atomic hydrogen4, 5, 6, 7 and calculations of bound-state quantum electrodynamics (QED; refs 8, 9). The accuracy of rp as deduced from electron–proton scattering limits the testing of bound-state QED in atomic hydrogen as well as the determination of the Rydberg constant (currently the most accurately measured fundamental physical constant3). An attractive means to improve the accuracy in the measurement of rp is provided by muonic hydrogen (a proton orbited by a negative muon); its much smaller Bohr radius compared to ordinary atomic hydrogen causes enhancement of effects related to the finite size of the proton. In particular, the Lamb shift10 (the energy difference between the 2S1/2 and 2P1/2 states) is affected by as much as 2 per cent. Here we use pulsed laser spectroscopy to measure a muonic Lamb shift of 49,881.88(76) GHz. On the basis of present calculations11, 12, 13, 14, 15 of fine and hyperfine splittings and QED terms, we find rp = 0.84184(67) fm, which differs by 5.0 standard deviations from the CODATA value3 of 0.8768(69) fm. Our result implies that either the Rydberg constant has to be shifted by −110 kHz/c (4.9 standard deviations), or the calculations of the QED effects in atomic hydrogen or muonic hydrogen atoms are insufficient.
